From: Progesterone from ovulatory menstrual cycles is an important cause of breast cancer
Data supporting the MC hypothesis (includes P4 and E2) | |
Individuals without MCs due to genetic abnormalities appear to have no BC | |
Strong correlation between the reduction in MCs due to physiological, genetic and pathological effects (AN, POI) and a decrease in the lifetime risk to develop BC | |
Artificial MCs induced by COCs carry a comparable or even somewhat higher BC risk compared to the natural MC | |
Data supporting the specific P4 hypothesis | |
P4 is mutagenic for the breast, while estrogens and testosterone are not | |
Individuals with the CAIS syndrome have substantial E2 levels and female size and structure breasts, but no P4 and no BC | |
Individuals with the MRKH syndrome have no uterus and no BC, but normal P4, which could be explained by the absence of WNT4 gene activity | |
P-only contraception without endogenous ovarian estrogens carries a BC risk comparable to the natural MC or even somewhat higher | |
Estrogen-only MHT decreases BC incidence and mortality when started more than 5Â years after menopause | |
High dose estrogen treatment of MtF transgenders induces normal female size and structure breasts with a very low BC risk | |
FtM transgenders treated long term with high doses of testosterone have a low BC risk which is comparable to cisgender males |