Table 1 Epidemiologic studies investigating environmental exposures during three windows of susceptibility in relation to an intermediate marker of breast cancer risk or breast cancer

 Bonner (2005) [33]

Regional total suspended particulates

Breast cancer

Women 35–79, New York

1166 cases and 2105 controls

OR 2.42

0.97–6.09

> 140 vs < 84 μg/m³ TSP, postmenopausal women

OR 1.78

0.62–5.10

> 140 vs < 84 μg/m³ TSP, premenopausal women

 Bocskay (2005) [32]

Personal airborne PAH; PAH DNA adducts

Chromosomal aberrations from cord blood

Newborns in Northern Manhattan; Bronx

60 (32 female, 28 male)

Data not shown for PAH adducts

“No strong association”

Airborne PAH

β = 0.14

p = 0.006

Linear regression line slope

 Cohn (2015) [25]

Maternal o,p’-DDT

Daughter breast cancer

Mothers and adult daughters in Alameda County, CA

118 cases and 354 controls

OR 3.7

1.5–9.0

Fourth vs first quartile (> 0.78 vs < 0.27 ng/mL)

 Tsai (2015) [82]

Serum PFOA

log-transformed SHBG

Taiwanese girls aged 12–17

65

2.96 (SE 0.34) vs 3.50 (SE 0.24)

p < 0.05

Mean PFOA levels 90th vs 50th percentile (> 9.80 vs < 3.63 ng/mL)

Data not shown

p > 0.05

FSH and testosterone

 Wolff (2015) [57]

Urinary phenols

Age at breast development

US girls aged 6–8 followed for 7 years

1239 girls

Enterolactone: HR 0.79

Benzophenone-3: HR 0.80

Triclosan:

HR 1.17

2,5-dichlophenol: HR 1.37

0.64–0.98

0.65–0.98

0.96–1.43

1.09–1.72

5th vs 1st quintiles of biomarkers

 Wolff (2014) [58]

Low and high molecular weight phthalate (MWP) metabolites from urine

Age of breast and pubic hair development

US girls aged 6–8 followed for 7 years

1239 girls

Pubic hair development age: HR 0.91

Breast development age: HR 0.99

0.84–0.99

0.91–1.08

5th vs 1st quintiles of high MWP metabolites. Results null for low MWP metabolites.

 Wolff (2010) [59]

Low and high molecular weight phthalate (MWP) metabolites from urine

Stage of breast and pubic hair development

US girls aged 6–8 followed for 1 year

1151 girls

Pubic hair development:

PR 0.94

Breast development:

PR 1.03

0.88–1.00

0.97–1.10

5th vs 1st quintiles of high MWP metabolites. Results attenuated for low MWP metabolites (p = 0.08).

 Windham (2015) [60]

PBDE, PCB, OCP

Tanner stage 2+ vs 1 (breast development)

US girls aged 6–8 followed for 7 years

645 girls

PBDE: TR 1.05

PCB: TR 1.05

OCP: TR 1.10

1.02–1.08

1.01–1.08

1.06–1.14

4th vs 1st quartile. Results similar for pubic hair development.

 Cohn (2007, 2019) [67, 68]

p,p’-DDT metabolites in serum taken after giving birth (initial DDT exposure likely before age 14 years)

Breast cancer before age 50

Women in Child Health and Development Studies cohort

129 cases and 129 matched controls

OR 5.4

1.7–17.1

Highest vs lowest tertile (> 13.90 vs < 8.09 μg/L)

Breast cancer diagnosis during ages 50–54

153 cases and 432 matched controls

OR 1.88

1.37–2.59

One-unit change in log₂ (p,p’-DDT), approximately equal to a 2-fold increase

 Nie (2007) [115]

Regional total suspended particulates at time of first birth

Post-menopausal breast cancer

Women 35–79 in Erie and Niagara Counties

220 cases and 301 controls

OR 2.57

1.16–5.69

Highest vs lowest quartile

 Bonefeld-Jorgensen (2014) [83]

16 serum PFAS during pregnancy including 10 PFCA, 5 PFSA, and PFOSA

Breast cancer

Danish National Birth Cohort

250 cases and 233 controls

PFOSA: RR 1.04

PFHxS: RR 0.66

0.99–1.08

0.47–0.94

Continuous per ng/ml. All other PFAS were null.

 Cohn (2012) [110]

Serum PCB during early postpartum

Breast cancer before age 50

Women in Child Health and Development Studies cohort

112 cases with matched controls

PCB 167:

OR 0.24

PCB 187:

OR 0.35

PCB 203:

OR 6.34

0.07–0.79

0.11–1.14

1.85–21.7

Highest vs lowest quartile (> 0.30 vs < 0.08 mmol/l)

(> 0.66 vs < 0.38 mmol/l)

(> 0.42 vs < 0.34 mmol/l)